Nouns
A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.
Proper Nouns
A proper noun is a word that names a specific person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns are capitalized.
President Lincoln
Montreal
Washington Memorial
Common Nouns
Common nouns refer to generic, common categories—and are not capitalized.
presidents
cities
memorials
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word used in the place of a noun.
Categories of Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is used to point to a noun.
(this, that, these, those)
I like those cats.
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun refers to a nonspecific person, place, thing, or idea.
(all, another, any, anybody, anyone, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, one, some, somebody, someone, something)
Many are called, but few are chosen.
Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun reflexes or reflects back unto itself. It usually ends in -self or -selves.
(myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)
I saw myself in the mirror.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to begin a question.
(Who, Whom, Whose, Which, What)
Who designed the Empire State Building?
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person, place, thing, or idea.
(I, me, you, she, her, me, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, our, ours, their, theirs)
That book is Jane’s. That book is hers.
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates ownership, possession.
(my, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, our, ours, our, yours, their, theirs)
That is my car.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is used to connect an adjective clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun.
(who, whom, whose, which, that)
The runner who won the race trained hard.
Verbs
A verb is a word that expresses an action, condition, or state of being.
Action Verbs
Action verbs express action.
My dog ate my homework.
Verbs can be finite or nonfinite.
Finite Verbs
Finite verbs make a statement, express a state of being, and are independent—can stand alone.
My wife’s dog ate her yoga mat.
Nonfinite Verbs
Nonfinite verb forms cannot stand independently in a sentence. They require auxiliary verbs.
Rachel is dancing in the upcoming competition.
Verbals—formed from verbs but act as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs
Infinitives
Any verb that is preceded by the word to is an infinitive. Here are some examples: to love, to eat, to run, to believe, to follow, to laugh….
To walk is a pastime of mine.
Participles
A participle is a word that has the qualities of both a verb and an adjective. Present participles end in -ing, and past participles end in ed, d, en, t, or n. They function as adjectives in sentences.
The flaming sun hurt my eyes.
The path taken was new.
Demonstrative Pronouns
A demonstrative pronoun is used to point to a noun.
(this, that, these, those)
I like those cats.
Indefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun refers to a nonspecific person, place, thing, or idea.
(all, another, any, anybody, anyone, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, one, some, somebody, someone, something)
Many are called, but few are chosen.
Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun reflexes or reflects back unto itself. It usually ends in -self or -selves.
(myself, yourself, himself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves)
I saw myself in the mirror.
Interrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to begin a question.
(Who, Whom, Whose, Which, What)
Who designed the Empire State Building?
Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person, place, thing, or idea.
(I, me, you, she, her, me, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, our, ours, their, theirs)
That book is Jane’s. That book is hers.
Possessive Pronouns
A possessive pronoun indicates ownership, possession.
(my, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, our, ours, our, yours, their, theirs)
That is my car.
Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun is used to connect an adjective clause or phrase to a noun or pronoun.
(who, whom, whose, which, that)
The runner who won the race trained hard.
Verbs
A verb is a word that expresses an action, condition, or state of being.
Action Verbs
Action verbs express action.
My dog ate my homework.
Verbs can be finite or nonfinite.
Finite Verbs
Finite verbs make a statement, express a state of being, and are independent—can stand alone.
My wife’s dog ate her yoga mat.
Nonfinite Verbs
Nonfinite verb forms cannot stand independently in a sentence. They require auxiliary verbs.
Rachel is dancing in the upcoming competition.
Verbals—formed from verbs but act as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs
Infinitives
Any verb that is preceded by the word to is an infinitive. Here are some examples: to love, to eat, to run, to believe, to follow, to laugh….
To walk is a pastime of mine.
Participles
A participle is a word that has the qualities of both a verb and an adjective. Present participles end in -ing, and past participles end in ed, d, en, t, or n. They function as adjectives in sentences.
The flaming sun hurt my eyes.
The path taken was new.
Gerunds
A gerund expresses an action or state of being. A gerund ends in -ing. Gerunds function as nouns.
Running is a great sport.
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs tend to be “state of being” verbs (not action verbs) and are primarily used to connect the subject in a sentence with further information about the subject.
(am, are, is, was, were, will be, being, been, etc.)
I am happy.
Helping Verbs
A helping verb precedes the main verb. It helps another verb. Helping verbs often express necessity, obligation, or possibility, as well as the traditional five properties of verbs: person, number, tense, voice, and mood. Helping verbs are often referred to as auxiliary verbs.
(be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been, has, have, had, do, does, did, can, will, shall, should, could, would, may, might, must, etc.)
Rachel can (helping verb) ride (main verb) her sister’s bicycle.
Rachel should (helping verb) ride (main verb) her sister’s bicycle before it’s too late!
Rachel could (helping verb) ride (main verb) her bike faster than anyone.
Tenses to Remember
Present
The present tense is used to portray an action occurring in the present moment or to describe an action that happens habitually or regularly. Formulation: (Subject) + (base form of verb).
I walk every day.
I am healthy.
Present Perfect
The present perfect tense describes an action or state of being that began in the past and continued into the present; it also represents an action or state that was finished at an indefinite time in the past. This is formed by adding have or has before the past participle form of the verb: (Subject) + (has/have) + (past participle of the verb).
I have walked through the park.
David has walked through the park in the past.
Present Progressive
The present progressive describes an ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (is/am/are) + (verb [+ing]).
I am walking to the park.
A gerund expresses an action or state of being. A gerund ends in -ing. Gerunds function as nouns.
Running is a great sport.
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs tend to be “state of being” verbs (not action verbs) and are primarily used to connect the subject in a sentence with further information about the subject.
(am, are, is, was, were, will be, being, been, etc.)
I am happy.
Helping Verbs
A helping verb precedes the main verb. It helps another verb. Helping verbs often express necessity, obligation, or possibility, as well as the traditional five properties of verbs: person, number, tense, voice, and mood. Helping verbs are often referred to as auxiliary verbs.
(be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been, has, have, had, do, does, did, can, will, shall, should, could, would, may, might, must, etc.)
Rachel can (helping verb) ride (main verb) her sister’s bicycle.
Rachel should (helping verb) ride (main verb) her sister’s bicycle before it’s too late!
Rachel could (helping verb) ride (main verb) her bike faster than anyone.
Tenses to Remember
Present
The present tense is used to portray an action occurring in the present moment or to describe an action that happens habitually or regularly. Formulation: (Subject) + (base form of verb).
I walk every day.
I am healthy.
Present Perfect
The present perfect tense describes an action or state of being that began in the past and continued into the present; it also represents an action or state that was finished at an indefinite time in the past. This is formed by adding have or has before the past participle form of the verb: (Subject) + (has/have) + (past participle of the verb).
I have walked through the park.
David has walked through the park in the past.
Present Progressive
The present progressive describes an ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (is/am/are) + (verb [+ing]).
I am walking to the park.
Present Perfect Progressive
The present perfect progressive describes an ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (has/have) + (been) + (verb [+ing]).
I have been walking regularly to the park.
Past
The past tense expresses an action, condition, or state of being that began and ended in the past. Formulation: (Subject) + (past form of verb) or (irregular verb).
I walked in the park last year.
Past Perfect
The past perfect refers to actions or states of being that happened before another action in the past. It is formed by using had before the past participle form of the verb: (Subject) + (had) + (past participle form of the verb).
Before my walk, my wife had asked me to wash the car.
Past Progressive
The past progressive refers to a past ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (was/were) + (verb [+ing]).
I was walking to the park.
Past Perfect Progressive
The past perfect progressive refers to a past ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (has/have) + (been) + (verb [+ing]).
I have been walking for the past hour.
Future
The future tense describes things or states of being that have not yet happened. It is made by placing shall or will before the present form of the verb: (Subject) + (will/shall) + (base form of the verb).
I shall walk as much as I can this coming year.
I will walk as much as I can this coming year.
Future Perfect
The future perfect tense describes an action or state in the future that will be finished before another future action or state of being. It is made by placing will have or shall have before the past participle form of the verb: (Subject) + (will have/shall have) + (past participle form of the verb).
I will have walked thousands of miles before my birthday.
I shall have walked thousands of miles before my birthday.
Future Progressive
The future progressive refers to a future ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (will be/shall be) + (verb [+ing]).
I will be walking to the park.
Future Perfect Progressive
The future perfect progressive refers to a past ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (will have been) + (verb [+ing]).
I will have been walking for several hours.
The present perfect progressive describes an ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (has/have) + (been) + (verb [+ing]).
I have been walking regularly to the park.
Past
The past tense expresses an action, condition, or state of being that began and ended in the past. Formulation: (Subject) + (past form of verb) or (irregular verb).
I walked in the park last year.
Past Perfect
The past perfect refers to actions or states of being that happened before another action in the past. It is formed by using had before the past participle form of the verb: (Subject) + (had) + (past participle form of the verb).
Before my walk, my wife had asked me to wash the car.
Past Progressive
The past progressive refers to a past ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (was/were) + (verb [+ing]).
I was walking to the park.
Past Perfect Progressive
The past perfect progressive refers to a past ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (has/have) + (been) + (verb [+ing]).
I have been walking for the past hour.
Future
The future tense describes things or states of being that have not yet happened. It is made by placing shall or will before the present form of the verb: (Subject) + (will/shall) + (base form of the verb).
I shall walk as much as I can this coming year.
I will walk as much as I can this coming year.
Future Perfect
The future perfect tense describes an action or state in the future that will be finished before another future action or state of being. It is made by placing will have or shall have before the past participle form of the verb: (Subject) + (will have/shall have) + (past participle form of the verb).
I will have walked thousands of miles before my birthday.
I shall have walked thousands of miles before my birthday.
Future Progressive
The future progressive refers to a future ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (will be/shall be) + (verb [+ing]).
I will be walking to the park.
Future Perfect Progressive
The future perfect progressive refers to a past ongoing action. Use the proper be verb before a present participle: (Subject) + (will have been) + (verb [+ing]).
I will have been walking for several hours.
*Trying to conjugate irregular verbs requires a good dictionary or verb chart.
Subject-Verb Agreement
Singular subjects have singular verbs, and plural subjects have plural verbs.
Compound subjects with the word and require plural verbs.
Regarding compound subjects with the word or or nor, the following rules apply:
If the subject closest to the verb is singular, the singular verb is used.
If the subject closest to the verb is plural, the plural verb is used.
Indefinite pronouns are singular and take singular verbs.
Active vs. Passive Voice
When a verb is in an active voice, the subject of the sentence is performing the action.
The football player kicked the ball.
When a verb is in the passive voice, the subject receives the action. A passive voice has a helping verb plus the main verb.
The ball was kicked by the football player.
Grammarians prefer that writers write in the active voice, with a little of the passive sprinkled in.
Adjectives
An adjective is a word used to describe a noun or pronoun.
Adjectives--Noun Modifiers
Noun modifiers precede the nouns they modify.
beautiful person
awful play
dreadful noise
Predicate Adjectives
Predicate adjectives follow linking verbs and describe the subject.
The leaves turned brown and yellow.
The crowd remained calm during the accident.
Determiners
Determiners are modifiers that precede descriptive adjectives.
Articles: the (definite), a, an (indefinite)
That is a dirty cat.
Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
Those dirty cats are homeless.
Number Words: one, two, three/ first, second, third/ first last…
There are three dirty cats on the porch.
Quantifiers: some, many, several…
The man had many dirty cats in his abandoned house.
Descriptive Adjectives (Comparative, Superlative)
Comparative adjectives have an er or more form:
I took a larger piece of the pie than Josephine.
Bob is more friendly than Harry.
Superlative adjectives have an est or most form:
I took the largest piece of the pie.
Bob is the most sensitive of all my friends.
Adverbs
An adverb is used to modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
The train arrived yesterday.
They spoke respectively.
Danielle sings occasionally.
That is a completely false assumption.
It was a terribly cold winter.
I did my work quite easily.
I did even worse on my driver’s exam than I thought.
Prepositions
A preposition is a word that modifies a noun or pronoun; it expresses a relationship between the noun and the word, element, or clause it modifies.
(about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, besides, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, next, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, than, through, to, toward, under, unlike, until, up, with, without)
Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition followed by a noun group or phrase.
Josephine enjoys running in the morning.
Jerry read the Divine Comedy by Dante.
He hid the gift under the boardwalk.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a joining word.
Correlative Conjunctions
A correlative conjunction is a pair of conjunctions used to connect two elements.
(either…or, neither…nor, whether…or, not only…but also, both…and)
Either you come with me, or I will go with you.
*Once Again: With or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearest the verb.
If a relative or friend are outside, . . . . (Wrong.)
If a relative or friend is outside, . . . . (Correct.)
Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction connects two words or two parts of equal status in a sentence.
(and, or, but)
I want cereal or fruits for breakfast.
I dislike geography and anthropology.
David is smart but conniving.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to another clause or sentence; they join words or groups of words of unequal status.
(after, although, as, as if, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whether, while)
She trusts me because I am a trustworthy person.
Interjections
An interjection is a word that expresses emotion.
Hey! Wow! Oh!
That is a dirty cat.
Demonstrative: this, that, these, those
Those dirty cats are homeless.
Number Words: one, two, three/ first, second, third/ first last…
There are three dirty cats on the porch.
Quantifiers: some, many, several…
The man had many dirty cats in his abandoned house.
Descriptive Adjectives (Comparative, Superlative)
Comparative adjectives have an er or more form:
I took a larger piece of the pie than Josephine.
Bob is more friendly than Harry.
Superlative adjectives have an est or most form:
I took the largest piece of the pie.
Bob is the most sensitive of all my friends.
Adverbs
An adverb is used to modify a verb, adjective, or another adverb.
The train arrived yesterday.
They spoke respectively.
Danielle sings occasionally.
That is a completely false assumption.
It was a terribly cold winter.
I did my work quite easily.
I did even worse on my driver’s exam than I thought.
Prepositions
A preposition is a word that modifies a noun or pronoun; it expresses a relationship between the noun and the word, element, or clause it modifies.
(about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beside, besides, between, beyond, by, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, next, of, off, on, onto, out, outside, over, past, since, than, through, to, toward, under, unlike, until, up, with, without)
Prepositional Phrases
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition followed by a noun group or phrase.
Josephine enjoys running in the morning.
Jerry read the Divine Comedy by Dante.
He hid the gift under the boardwalk.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a joining word.
Correlative Conjunctions
A correlative conjunction is a pair of conjunctions used to connect two elements.
(either…or, neither…nor, whether…or, not only…but also, both…and)
Either you come with me, or I will go with you.
*Once Again: With or or nor, the verb agrees with the subject nearest the verb.
If a relative or friend are outside, . . . . (Wrong.)
If a relative or friend is outside, . . . . (Correct.)
Coordinating Conjunctions
A coordinating conjunction connects two words or two parts of equal status in a sentence.
(and, or, but)
I want cereal or fruits for breakfast.
I dislike geography and anthropology.
David is smart but conniving.
Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to another clause or sentence; they join words or groups of words of unequal status.
(after, although, as, as if, because, before, even though, if, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, where, whether, while)
She trusts me because I am a trustworthy person.
Interjections
An interjection is a word that expresses emotion.
Hey! Wow! Oh!
